Document Type

Dissertation

Degree Name

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Department

Psychology

Program Name/Specialization

Developmental Psychology

Faculty/School

Faculty of Arts

First Advisor

Dr. Alexandra Gottardo

Advisor Role

Supervisor

Abstract

With one of the highest immigration rates in the world (Statistics Canada, 2021), Canada’s multicultural mosaic provides an important context to understand how individuals with immigrant backgrounds adapt linguistically and culturally over time. Various research studies have been conducted on second language acquisition and first language (L1) attrition, the documented phenomenon that occurs when individuals gradually lose their first language (Schmid & Köpke, 2007). Less is known about the specific factors that contribute to L1 and L2 losses and gains in individuals with immigrant backgrounds. Furthermore, there is also limited literature on how linguistic changes unfold across different developmental stages, and how these changes are influenced by cultural orientation, motivation, and psychosocial factors (Han et al., 2025). Therefore, this longitudinal study (6-month interval) assesses linguistic and cultural development among three age groups (total N = 235), specifically children, adolescents and young adults with immigrant backgrounds across two time points spanning six months. The present study examines losses and gains in L1 and L2 proficiencies and changes in these skills as well as the factors that influence these trajectories on an individual, social, and cultural level. The study addresses two overarching questions: 1) Which variables contribute to L1 and L2 losses or gains? and 2) How can individuals with immigrant backgrounds acquire English successfully while maintaining their L1? Participants completed standardized assessments of their L1 and English proficiency as well as questionnaires on cultural orientation, language use and motivation, home environment, peer/social interactions, and psychosocial well-being at both time points to capture cultural linguistic changes and stability over time. Findings indicated that English vocabulary, reading, and verbal fluency increased for all age groups over time, with children demonstrating the greatest growth in English expressive vocabulary. Adolescents showed the strongest L1 verbal fluency and L1 maintenance across the developmental groups. Acculturation was associated with stronger English proficiency and English dominance. These findings are consistent with second language acquisition research suggesting that language development is supported by exposure to meaningful and comprehensible input (Benati, 2024), whereas enculturation and motivation to learn an additional language were associated with stronger L1 maintenance. The findings also highlighted that self-reported language skills in both the L1 and English are strongly related to objective language measures, supporting the validity of participants’ self-perceptions. Additionally, earlier English exposure and earlier immigration to Canada were linked to stronger English proficiency, while later exposure was associated with stronger L1 proficiency and maintenance. This exploratory study provides a comprehensive understanding of bilingual development and the sociocultural factors that promote language maintenance and growth.

Convocation Year

2026

Convocation Season

Fall

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Available for download on Saturday, August 28, 2027

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