Document Type

Thesis

Degree Name

Master of Arts (MA)

Department

Psychology

Program Name/Specialization

Social Psychology

Faculty/School

Faculty of Arts

First Advisor

Christian Jordan

Advisor Role

Primary Master's Supervisor

Abstract

Counter-empathy is an emotional or behavioural response that is opposite to the assumed emotional state of another. Unsurprisingly, counter-empathy has been associated with various negative outcomes like aggression and violence. However, a challenge with traditional empathy measures is that low scores can ambiguously represent either apathy—a lack of emotional response—or counter-empathy. Despite the clear need, there is a lack of psychological measures that clearly distinguish different dimensions of counter-empathy. Furthermore, the literature pertaining to counter-empathy is scattered, with most work focusing on specific counter-empathic constructs rather than the broader phenomenon. Through a series of studies, I provide evidence for a three-dimensional model of counter-empathy including schadenfreude (feeling pleasure from witnessing another’s misfortune), gluckschmerz (feeling discomfort from witnessing another’s good fortune), and affective sadism (deriving pleasure from intentionally undermining others' positive emotions and amplifying their emotional distress). Based on this model, I also developed an accompanying trait measure of counter-empathy. Starting with an initial pool of 120 items, I used exploratory (Study 1a: n = 361; Study 1b: n = 416) and confirmatory factor analyses (Study 2: n = 392) to establish a 30-item scale. I introduce the Various Indices of Counter-Empathy (VICE) scale as a valid, internally consistent, and structurally coherent tool for assessing counter-empathy. The VICE demonstrates strong associations with narcissism, psychopathy, Machiavellianism, and aggression, highlighting its utility in discerning other maladaptive personality traits and socially aversive behaviours. To better understand how existing counter-empathic constructs fit together and fit within my three-dimensional model, I analyzed existing measures of counter-empathic constructs and found evidence that other counter-empathic constructs may be lower-order facets of schadenfreude, gluckschmerz, and affective sadism. In Study 3 (n = 378), I demonstrate the ability of the VICE to predict opposite emotional and behavioural reactions to specific scenarios.

Convocation Year

2024

Convocation Season

Spring

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Available for download on Monday, August 30, 2027

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